Le texto fonte de Historia del pseudoscientia

[[File:Joseph Wright of Derby The Alchemist.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Le Alchemista cercante le Pietra Philosophale]]'', per Joseph Wright, 1771]]

Le '''historia del pseudoscientia''' es le studio del theorias pseudoscientific al longo del tempore. Un [[pseudoscientia]] es un conjunto de ideas que se presenta como scientia, ben que illo non satisface le criterios pro esser ben nominate tal.<ref>"''Pseudoscientific - pretending to be scientific, falsely represented as being scientific''", from the ''Oxford American Dictionary'', published by the [[Oxford English Dictionary]]</ref><ref>[http://skepdic.com/pseudosc.html The Skeptic's Dictionary entry on 'Pseudoscience']</ref>

Distinguer inter le [[scientia]] genuine e le pseudoscientia es a vices difficile. Un proposition popular pro le demarcation inter illos es le criterio de falsification, contribute notabilemente per le philosopho Karl Popper. In le historia del pseudoscientia, illo pote esser particularmente difficile separar le duo, proque alcun scientias se disveloppava ex pseudosciencias. Un exemplo de isto es le scientia del [[chimia]], que tracia su origines ab le protoscientia de [[alchimia]].

Le vastitate de pseudosciencias complica ulteriormente le historia del pseudoscientia. Alicunes pseudosciencias ha originas in le era pre-scientific, tal como [[astrologia]] e acupunctura. Alteres se disveloppava como parte de un ideologia, como Lysenkoismo, o como responsa a percipite minacias a un ideologia. Un exemplo de isto es creationismo, que se disveloppava como responsa al [[Evolution|theoria scientific de evolution]].

Nonobstante illos non satisfacer le standardes scientific apropriate, multe pseudosciencias persiste. Isto occurre generalmente a causa de un nucleo persistente de devotees qui refusa acceptar le critica scientific de lor credentias, o a causa de misconceptiones popular. Le popularitate pur es anque un facto, como illo es attestate per astrologia que remane popular nonobstante esser rejectate per un grande majoritate de scientistas.<ref name="taylor">{{cite web | title=The Religious and Other Beliefs of Americans 2003 | author=Humphrey Taylor | url=http://www.harrisinteractive.com/harris_poll/index.asp?PID=359 | access-date=2007-01-05 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111214109/http://www.harrisinteractive.com/harris_poll/index.asp?PID=359 | archive-date=2007-01-11 | url-status=dead | accessdate=2024-01-08 | archivedate=2007-01-11 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111214109/http://www.harrisinteractive.com/harris_poll/index.asp?PID=359 }}</ref><ref name="nsa1">{{cite web | title=Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Understanding | publisher=National Science Foundation | url=https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind06/c7/c7s2.htm#c7s2l3 | access-date=2007-01-05 | archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/5902/20150818094952/https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind06/c7/c7s2.htm#c7s2l3 | archive-date=2015-08-18 | url-status=dead | accessdate=2024-01-08 | archivedate=2015-08-18 | archiveurl=https://wayback.archive-it.org/5902/20150818094952/https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind06/c7/c7s2.htm#c7s2l3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia
 |encyclopedia=Encarta 
 |year=2008 
 |title=Astrology 
 |publisher=Microsoft 
 |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761552380/Astrology.html 
 |quote=Scientists have long rejected the principles of astrology, but millions of people continue to believe in or practice it. 
 |access-date=2007-08-28 
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028014536/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761552380/Astrology.html
 |archive-date=2009-10-28
 |url-status=dead
}}</ref><ref>Astrology: Fraud or Superstition? by Chaz Bufe {{cite web | title= Astrology Fraud or Superstition | url= http://www.seesharppress.com/astro.html | publisher= See Sharp Press | accessdate= 2024-01-08 | archivedate= 2019-02-14 | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20190214083154/http://www.seesharppress.com/astro.html }}</ref>

== Seculo XIX ==
[[Image:PhrenologyPix.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|Un charta de frenologia de 1883. Durante le prime parte del seculo XIX, le frenologia esseva un studio popular e considerate scientific. Per le secunde parte del seculo, le theoria esseva largemente abandonate.]]

Inter le disveloppamentos plus notabile in le historia del pseudoscientia in le seculo XIX se trova le ascension del Spiritualismo (traciate in America a 1848), le [[homeopathia]] (formulate initialmente in 1796), e le frenologia (disveloppate circa 1800). Un altere credentia pseudoscientific popular que surgiava durante le seculo XIX esseva le idea que il habeva canales visibile sur Marte. Un opposition christian fundamentaliste relativemente moderate contra le theoria scientific de evolution prenunciava eventos subsequente in le seculo XX.

Le studio de prominences e fissuras in le cranios de personas pro determinar lor character, frenologia, esseva originalmente considerate un scientia. Illo influentiate le psychiatria e studios initiale del neuroscientia.<ref name="Simpson 2005">Simpson, D. (2005) Phrenology and the neurosciences: contributions of F. J. Gall and J. G. Spurzheim ANZ Journal of Surgery. Oxford. Vol.75.6; p.475</ref> Con le progression del scientia, le frenologia esseva sempre plus vidite como un pseudoscientia. A medio seculo del seculo XIX, le communitate scientific le aveva preponderantemente abandonate,<ref name="van Wyhe, J.">[http://www.victorianweb.org/science/phrenology/index.html Phrenology: An Overview, by dr. John van Wyhe]</ref> ben que illo non esseva comprehensively testate usque multo postea.<ref>Parker Jones, O., Alfaro-Almagro, F., & Jbabdi, S. (2018). ''An empirical, 21st century evaluation of phrenology''. Cortex. Volume 106. pp. 26–35. doi: doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2018.04.011</ref>

A medietate del seculo, le iridologia esseva inventate per le medico hungarese Ignaz von Peczely.<ref>[http://skepdic.com/iridol.html The Skeptic's Dictionary entry on 'Iridology']</ref> Le theoria remanerea popular durante tote le seculo XX.<ref>[http://www.quackwatch.com/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/iridology.html Iridology Is Nonsense], by Stephen Barrett, M.D.</ref>

[[File:Venice_ast_sm.jpg|thumb|Le signos astrologic del zodiaco.]]

Le Spiritualismo (a vices referite como "Modern Spiritualism" o "Spiritism")<ref name="Podmore">{{cite journal  | last=Podmore | first=Frank | year=1903 | title=Modern Spiritualism. A History and a Criticism | journal= The American Journal of Psychology | volume=14 | issue=1 | pages=116&ndash;117 | doi=10.2307/1412224 | jstor=1412224 | publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]]| hdl=2027/iau.31858027158827 | hdl-access=free }}</ref> o "Modern American Spiritualism"<ref name="Britten">{{Cite book | last=Britten | first=Emma Hardinge | title=Modern American Spiritualism | year=1870 }}</ref> cresceva phenomenalemente durante iste periodo. Le version american de iste movimento pote esser tracite al sorores Fox qui, in 1848, comenciava a affirmar le abilitate de communicar con le morte.<ref>[http://skepdic.com/spiritul.html The Skeptic's Dictionary entry on 'Spiritualism']</ref> Le movimento religiose remanerea popular usque le annos 1920, quando le famose mago Harry Houdini comenciava a exponer mediums e altere artistas famose como fraudatores (vide etiam Harry Houdini#Scepticisme de spiritualistas). Ben que le credentias religiose del Spiritualismo non es presentate como scientia, e assi non es aproprie considerate pseudoscientific, le movimento generava numeros phenomenos pseudoscientific como ectoplasma e photographia de spirites.

Le principios de homeopathia esseva formulate initialmente in 1796 per le medico german [[Samuel Hahnemann]]. Al illa tempore, le medicina conventional esseva un affaire primitive e usava ancora technicas como le sanguessuction. Le medicina homeopathic, a contrasto, consisteva in substantias extrememente diluite, lo que significava que le patientes basicamente recipeva aqua. Comparate con le damno frequentemente causate per le medicina conventional, isto esseva un melioramento.<ref name="pmid8885813">
{{cite journal |author=[[Edzard Ernst|Ernst E]], Kaptchuk TJ |title=Homeopathy revisited |journal=Arch. Intern. Med. |volume=156 |issue=19 |pages=2162–4 |year=1996 |pmid=8885813 |doi=10.1001/archinte.156.19.2162}}</ref> Durante le annos 1830, institutiones e scholas homeopathic se propagava a traverso le Statos Unite e Europa.<ref name=Julian>{{cite web |url=http://www.wholehealthnow.com/homeopathy_pro/homeopathy_1825_1849.html |title=Homeopathy Timeline |access-date=2007-07-23 |last=Winston |first=Julian |year=2006 |work=The Faces of Homoeopathy |publisher=Whole Health Now |accessdate=2024-01-08 |archivedate=2018-12-15 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215122834/http://www.wholehealthnow.com/homeopathy_pro/homeopathy_1825_1849.html }}</ref>  Nonobstante iste prime successos, le homeopathia non esseva sin su criticos.<ref>Un exemplo de un critica contemporanee del homeopathia:{{cite book |author=John Forbes |title=Homeopathy, allopathy and young physic |url=https://archive.org/details/101144255.nlm.nih.gov |location=London |year=1846}}</ref> Su popularitate era in declino ante le fin del seculo XIX, ben que illo ha essite revivite in le seculo XX.

Le supponite canales martian esseva prime reportate in 1877 per le astronomo italian [[Giovanni Schiaparelli]]. Le credentia in illos attingeva lor apice al fin del seculo XIX, ma esseva largemente discreditate al initio del seculo XX.

Le publication de ''Atlantis: The Antediluvian World'' per le politico e auctore Ignatius L. Donnelly in 1882 renovava interesse in le antique idea del [[Atlantida]]. Iste societate altamente avanciate supponite existeva multe millennios ante le ascension de civilisationes como le [[Egypto antique]]. Illo esseva mentionate per prime per [[Platon]], como un dispositivo litterari in duo de su dialogos. Altere historias de continentes perdite, como Mu e Lemuria, anque surgiava durante le fin del seculo XIX.

In 1881, le Societate contra le Quackery (''Vereniging tegen de Kwakzalverij'' in nederlandese) se formava pro opponer se a tendentias pseudoscientific in le medicina. Illo ancora es activ.

== Seculo XX ==
Inter le disveloppamentos le plus notabile in le historia del pseudoscientia in le seculo XX se trova le ascension del creationismo, le declino del spiritualismo, e le prime formulation de theorias de [[Hypothese del ancian astronautas|ancian astronautas]].

Le reflexologia, le idea que un forza vital non detectabile connecte diversas partes del corpore con le pedes e, a vices, le manos e aures, esseva introducite in le Statos Unite in 1913 como 'therapia de zonas'.<ref>[http://www.quackwatch.com/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/reflex.html Reflexology: A Close Look], by Stephen Barrett, M.D.</ref><ref>[http://skepdic.com/reflex.html The Skeptic's Dictionary entry on 'Reflexology']</ref>

Le Creationismo emergeva durante le seculo XX como resultado de varios altere disveloppamentos <nowiki>Insere texto non formatate hic</nowiki>historic. Quando le modern synthesis evolutionari superava le eclissamento del darwinismo in le prime medietate del seculo XX, christianos fundamentaliste american comenciava a opponer se al ensegnamento del theoria de evolution in scholas public. Illes introduciva numeros leges a iste effecto, un del quales esseva notoriemente confirmate per le Scopes Trial. In le secunde medietate del seculo, le Space Race causava un renovate interesse in scientia e preoccupation que le Statos Unite stava retroceder in comparation con le Union Sovietic. Normas scientific plus stringente esseva adoptate e conducite al reintroduction del theoria de evolution in le programma de studio. Le leges contra le ensegnamento de evolution esseva ora de facto declarate inconstitutional, proque illos violateva le separation inter ecclesia e stato. Pro evader iste decision, christianos fundamentaliste produciva un alternative supposemente secular al evolution, le Creationismo. Probabilemente le publication plus influente de iste nove pseudoscientia esseva ''The Genesis Flood'' per le creationistas del terra joven John C. Whitcomb e Henry M. Morris.

Le aurora del era spatial inspirava etiam varie versiones de theorias de astronautas anciente. Ben que il ha differentias inter le theorias specific, illes condivide le idea que extraterrestres intelligent visitava le Terra in le passato distante e faceva contacto con humanos vivente a ille tempore. Autores popular, como Erich von Däniken e Zecharia Sitchin, comenciava a publicar in le annos 1960. Inter le publicationes le plus notabile in iste genere se trova "Chariots of the Gods?", que appariva in 1968.

In le tardo del seculo XX, plure fundationes sceptic esseva formate pro contrar le crescentia del pseudosciences. In le Statos Unite, le plus notabile de iste es, in ordine chronologic, le Center for Inquiry (1991), The Skeptics Society (1992), le James Randi Educational Foundation (1996), e le New England Skeptical Society (1996). Le Committee for Skeptical Inquiry, que ha objectivos simile, jam habeva essite fundate in 1976. Illo deveniva parte del Center for Inquiry como parte del fundation del ultime in 1991. In le Nederland, le Stichting Skepsis esseva fundate in 1987.

== Seculo XXI ==
Al le initio del seculo XXI, un varietate de theorias pseudoscientific remane popular e nove continua a emerger.

Le Terra Platte es un idea que se crede haber existite pro millenarios ma studio monstra que iste es relativemente nove, comenciate in le annos 1990 quando le internet comenciava a diffunder tal ideas plus rapidemente.

Creationismo, in le forma de Designo Intelligente, suffreva un grande disfate legal in le processo Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District. Le Judice John E. Jones III decidite que Intelligent Design es inseparabile del Creationismo, e su ensegnamento in scholas public viola le Clause de Establimento del Prime Amendment. Le processo generava multe interesse e esseva le thema de plure documentarios incluse le production premiate NOVA "Judgment Day: Intelligent Design on Trial" (2007).

Le idea pseudoscientific que vaccinas causa autismo originava in le annos 1990, ma deveniva prominente in le media durante le prime decada del seculo XXI. Nonobstante un late consenso scientific contra le idea que il ha un relation inter [[vaccination]] e autismo,<ref>{{cite web| author=European Medicines Agency| author-link=European Medicines Agency| date=2004-03-24| url=http://www.emea.europa.eu/pdfs/human/press/pus/119404en.pdf| title=EMEA Public Statement on Thiomersal in Vaccines for Human Use| access-date=2007-07-22| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070610154109/http://www.emea.europa.eu/pdfs/human/press/pus/119404en.pdf| archive-date=2007-06-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Can Commun Dis Rep|year=2007|volume=33|issue=ACS-6|pages=1–13|title=Thimerosal: updated statement. An Advisory Committee Statement|author=National Advisory Committee on Immunization|pmid=17663033|url=http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/publicat/ccdr-rmtc/07vol33/acs-06/index_e.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| author=American Medical Association| author-link=American Medical Association| date=2004-05-18| url=http://www.ama-assn.org/ama1/pub/upload/mm/36/press_iom_mmr.doc| title=AMA Welcomes New IOM Report Rejecting Link Between Vaccines and Autism| access-date=2007-07-23| accessdate=2024-01-08| archivedate=2012-10-06| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121006192113/http://www.ama-assn.org/ama1/pub/upload/mm/36/press_iom_mmr.doc}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| author=American Academy of Pediatrics| author-link=American Academy of Pediatrics| date=2004-05-18| url=http://www.cispimmunize.org/fam/autism/thimerosal.htm| title=What Parents Should Know About Thimerosal| access-date=2007-07-23| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070708045514/http://www.cispimmunize.org/fam/autism/thimerosal.htm| archive-date=2007-07-08| accessdate=2024-01-08| archivedate=2007-07-08| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070708045514/http://www.cispimmunize.org/fam/autism/thimerosal.htm}}</ref><ref>[http://www.csicop.org/si/2007-06/novella.html Vaccines & Autism: Myths and Misconceptions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141007082937/http://www.csicop.org/si/2007-06/novella.html|date=2014-10-07}} by [[Steven Novella]], M.D., for the [[Committee for Skeptical Inquiry]]</ref> alcun celebritates se univa al controversia. Le plus notabile inter illos es Jenny McCarthy, cuje filio ha autismo. In februario 2009, le chirurgo Andrew Wakefield, qui publicava le recerca original que suppositemente indicava un ligamine inter vaccinas e autismo, esseva accusate de fixar le datos per ''[[The Sunday Times]]''.<ref>{{cite news | title=MMR doctor Andrew Wakefield fixed data on autism | publisher=The Sunday Times | date=2009-02-08 | url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/health/article5683671.ece | access-date=2009-02-08 | location=London | first=Brian | last=Deer | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100525134829/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/health/article5683671.ece | archive-date=2010-05-25 | accessdate=2024-01-08 | archivedate=2011-10-06 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006040554/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/health/article5683671.ece }}</ref> Un audiamento per le General Medical Council comenciava in martio 2007, examinante accusationes de misconducto professional. Le 24 de maio 2010, ille esseva radite del registro medical del Regno Unite, effectivemente prohibente su practica medical in Britannia.

Le plus notabile disveloppamento in le genere de astronautas anciente esseva le apertura del Mystery Park de Erich von Däniken in 2003. Ben que le parco habeva un bon prime anno, le numero de visitatores esseva multo minus que le 500,000 expectate per anno. Isto causava difficultates financiari, que conduceva al clausura del parco in 2006.<ref>[http://www.swissinfo.org/eng/top_news/detail/Closure_of_Mystery_Park_is_no_enigma.html?siteSect=106&sid=7266028&cKey=1163955688000 Closure of Mystery Park in Interlaken is no mystery] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081212113605/http://www.swissinfo.org/eng/top_news/detail/Closure_of_Mystery_Park_is_no_enigma.html?siteSect=106&sid=7266028&cKey=1163955688000 |date=2008-12-12 }} by swissinfo.ch</ref>

{{Referentias}}

{{Historia del scientia}}

[[Categoria:Historia del scientia]]
[[Categoria:Pseudoscientia]]